The Age of Industrialisation

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Proto-industrialisation refers to the phase of industrialisation that occurred before the establishment of factories. It was characterized by large-scale industrial production for an international market, which was not based on factories but on domestic units. Merchants from towns in Europe moved to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans to produce goods for the international market. This system allowed peasants to supplement their income from cultivation and use their family labor resources more fully. It was significant because it laid the groundwork for the factory system by creating a network of commercial exchanges and a labor force accustomed to industrial production. Examples include the production of textiles in the countryside before the advent of factories. This phase highlights the transition from agrarian economies to industrial economies.

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The East India Company's monopoly had a profound impact on Indian weavers. Initially, the Company found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for export due to competition from other traders. After establishing political power, the Company eliminated existing traders and brokers, appointing gomasthas to supervise weavers. Weavers were given loans to purchase raw materials but had to sell their cloth exclusively to the Company at low prices. This system tied weavers to the Company, reducing their independence and income. Many weavers deserted villages or revolted against the oppressive system. The monopoly led to the decline of traditional weaving communities and the destruction of India's vibrant textile trade. This exploitation was a key factor in the deindustrialisation of India under colonial rule.

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The introduction of the Spinning Jenny in Britain had mixed effects on workers. On one hand, it increased productivity by allowing one worker to spin multiple threads simultaneously. This reduced the demand for labor in the spinning process, leading to unemployment for many hand spinners, particularly women. On the other hand, it contributed to the growth of the textile industry, creating new jobs in factories. However, the initial reaction from workers was hostile, as they saw the machine as a threat to their livelihoods. There were reports of attacks on the Spinning Jenny by workers who feared unemployment. Over time, as the factory system expanded, workers had to adapt to new forms of labor and working conditions. The Spinning Jenny symbolizes the technological changes that transformed the industrial landscape and the lives of workers.

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The decline of the port of Surat by the end of the eighteenth century was due to several factors. The European companies, particularly the East India Company, gained power and secured monopoly rights to trade, undermining the local merchants. The credit network that financed the trade dried up, and local bankers went bankrupt. The port's trade value slumped dramatically, from Rs 16 million to Rs 3 million. The shift from old ports like Surat to new ports like Bombay and Calcutta, controlled by European companies, marked the growth of colonial power. The decline of Surat symbolizes the broader economic changes under colonial rule, where traditional trade networks were replaced by colonial economies. This shift also reflects the changing dynamics of global trade in the eighteenth century.

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Advertisements played a crucial role in creating new consumers during the industrial age. They made products appear desirable and necessary, shaping the minds of people and creating new needs. Manufacturers used labels on cloth bundles to make the place of manufacture and the company name familiar to buyers. Beautifully illustrated labels with images of gods and goddesses gave divine approval to the goods. Calendars were used to popularize products among people who could not read, as they were hung in homes and shops. Advertisements also used figures of important personages to lend credibility to products. In India, advertisements became a vehicle for the nationalist message of swadeshi, urging people to buy Indian products. This shows how advertisements were not just about selling products but also about creating a consumer culture and influencing societal values.

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The First World War had a significant impact on industrial production in India. With British mills busy with war production, Manchester imports into India declined, giving Indian mills a vast home market to supply. Indian factories were called upon to produce war needs like jute bags, cloth for uniforms, and other items. This led to a boom in industrial production, with new factories being set up and old ones running multiple shifts. Many new workers were employed, and working hours were extended. After the war, Manchester could not recapture its old position in the Indian market, allowing local industrialists to consolidate their position. The war thus provided an opportunity for Indian industries to grow and capture the home market, marking a turning point in India's industrial history.

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Industrial growth in India during the colonial period had several peculiarities. European Managing Agencies dominated industrial production, focusing on products like tea, coffee, and jute for export. Indian businessmen avoided competing with Manchester goods, producing coarse cotton yarn instead of fabric. The swadeshi movement and the decline of yarn exports to China led to a shift towards cloth production. The First World War boosted industrial growth, but large industries formed only a small segment of the economy. Small-scale production predominated, with most workers employed in household units. Handicrafts production expanded, with weavers adopting new technologies like the fly shuttle. This shows that industrial growth in colonial India was uneven, with traditional and modern sectors coexisting and adapting to changing circumstances.

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The living and working conditions of workers in Victorian Britain were harsh. There was no shortage of labor, leading to low wages. Workers faced seasonal employment, with many industries needing extra hands during peak periods. The abundance of labor meant that industrialists had no incentive to introduce labor-saving machines. Workers lived in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions, with many relying on night shelters or casual wards. Wages were low, and the real value of earnings fell during periods of inflation. The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to new technologies. Despite some increase in wages, the welfare of workers remained poor, with long hours and unsafe working conditions. This period highlights the challenges faced by the industrial working class in the early stages of industrialisation.

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The American Civil War had a severe impact on Indian weavers. The war cut off cotton supplies from the US, leading Britain to turn to India for raw cotton. This increased the demand for Indian cotton, causing prices to shoot up. Weavers, who were already struggling with competition from Manchester imports, faced a shortage of raw cotton. They were forced to buy raw cotton at exorbitant prices, making weaving unviable. Many weavers were starved of supplies and could not continue their craft. This crisis was compounded by the fact that the export market for Indian textiles had already collapsed. The American Civil War thus exacerbated the difficulties faced by Indian weavers, pushing many into poverty and forcing them to seek alternative livelihoods.

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The jobber played a key role in the recruitment of industrial workers in India. He was usually an old and trusted worker who got people from his village jobs in the mills. The jobber helped new recruits settle in the city and provided them with money in times of crisis. Over time, the jobber gained authority and power, demanding money and gifts for his favors. He controlled the lives of workers, deciding who got jobs and who did not. This system created a network of dependence, where workers relied on the jobber for employment and support. The jobber's role highlights the informal and often exploitative nature of labor recruitment in colonial India. It also shows how rural-urban connections influenced the industrial workforce, with many workers maintaining ties to their village homes.

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Proto-industrialisation refers to the phase of industrial production that existed before the advent of factories, where production was carried out in rural areas under the putting-out system. Factory industrialisation, on the other hand, centralized production in factories using machinery. Proto-industrialisation was labor-intensive and relied on manual skills, whereas factory industrialisation was capital-intensive and relied on machines. Examples include the handloom weavers in rural Britain versus the cotton mills in Manchester.

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The East India Company's monopoly led to the decline of Indian weavers by imposing the gomastha system, which forced weavers to sell exclusively to the Company at fixed prices. This eliminated competition, reduced weavers' earnings, and tied them to the Company through advances, leading to indebtedness and loss of autonomy. The decline of ports like Surat and Hoogly also disrupted traditional trade networks.

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The Spinning Jenny increased productivity but led to unemployment among hand spinners, particularly women. It reduced the demand for manual labor, causing distress among workers who relied on spinning for their livelihood. This led to protests and attacks on the machines by workers fearing job loss.

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The decline was due to British colonial policies that favored Manchester goods, imposition of high tariffs on Indian textiles, and the disruption of traditional trade networks. The American Civil War also affected raw cotton supplies, further impacting production.

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Advertisements played a key role in creating demand for new products by associating them with divine figures, royalty, and nationalist sentiments. They helped in building brand identity and persuading consumers to prefer factory-made goods over handmade ones.

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The war led to a decline in British imports as their industries focused on war production. This created a vacuum in the Indian market, which local industries filled by increasing production to meet domestic demand and war-related needs like uniforms and jute bags.

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Workers in Bombay's mills faced longer hours, lower wages, and poorer living conditions compared to their Lancashire counterparts. The jobber system in Bombay added another layer of exploitation, whereas Lancashire workers had begun to organize for better rights.

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The fly shuttle increased productivity by allowing weavers to operate wider looms and produce cloth faster. It helped handloom weavers compete with mill-produced cloth by improving efficiency without significantly increasing costs.

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The swadeshi movement encouraged Indian industrialists to produce goods that could replace British imports. It fostered a sense of nationalism, leading to the establishment of new industries and the expansion of existing ones to meet the demand for indigenous products.

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Indian industrialists faced competition from British goods, lack of tariff protection, and difficulties in accessing capital and technology. The dominance of European Managing Agencies also limited their control over business decisions.

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Proto-industrialisation allowed peasants and artisans to supplement their income by producing goods for international markets, leading to a closer relationship between towns and countryside. However, it also made them dependent on merchants and vulnerable to market fluctuations.

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The high cost of steam engines, frequent breakdowns, and the effectiveness of existing technologies made industrialists cautious. Additionally, the abundance of cheap labour reduced the immediate need for mechanisation in non-cotton industries.

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The gomastha system eliminated competition and ensured regular supply of goods for the Company, but it also led to exploitation of weavers through low wages and loss of bargaining power, contributing to the decline of the weaving industry.

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Britain experienced rapid industrial growth due to technological advancements and colonial exploitation, while India's industrial growth was stunted by colonial policies that favoured British goods and restricted Indian industries.

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The American Civil War increased demand for Indian cotton, raising raw cotton prices and making it difficult for Indian weavers to afford materials, thereby worsening their economic condition.

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The Swadeshi movement boosted Indian industries by promoting the boycott of British goods and encouraging the use of domestically produced goods, leading to increased demand for Indian products.

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European Managing Agencies facilitated capital investment and industrial setup but dominated key sectors, limiting opportunities for Indian entrepreneurs and perpetuating colonial economic control.

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Indian industrialists faced challenges such as limited access to capital, competition from British goods, restrictive colonial policies, and lack of technological advancements.

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Small-scale industries predominated due to lower capital requirements, adaptability to local markets, and the survival of traditional crafts despite competition from factory-produced goods.

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Advertisements played a key role in creating demand for new products by associating them with divine figures, royalty, and nationalist sentiments, thus shaping a new consumer culture.